Marcus Tullius Cicero, the brilliant orator and defender of the Roman Republic, believed he had found a way to save Rome from the looming threat of autocracy. His strategy? To manipulate a young, inexperienced heir named Octavian and use him as a tool to defeat Mark Antony, the perceived enemy of the Republic. Cicero’s plan seemed clever, but it was built on a series of dangerous miscalculations. Instead of preserving the Republic, Cicero inadvertently cleared the path for Octavian to become Augustus, Rome’s first emperor.
How did Cicero’s ambitious plan backfire so disastrously? Let’s explore how his misjudgments and underestimation of Octavian led to the collapse of the Roman Republic and the rise of imperial rule.
Cicero’S Strategy: Using Octavian Against Antony
In the chaotic aftermath of Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, Rome was on the brink of civil war. With Caesar gone, his loyal lieutenant Mark Antony sought to consolidate power, positioning himself as the natural successor to Caesar’s legacy. Cicero, a staunch defender of the Republic, saw Antony as a tyrant in the making—a threat that needed to be neutralized.
- Cicero’s Enemy, Antony: Cicero had long harbored animosity toward Antony, whom he saw as a corrupt and dangerous figure bent on undermining the Senate’s authority. Cicero’s famous speeches, the _Philippics_, publicly denounced Antony and rallied support against him. But Cicero knew that words alone would not be enough to defeat Antony’s growing influence.
- Octavian Enters the Scene: Enter Gaius Octavian, the 18-year-old grandnephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar. With little military experience and no political allies, Octavian seemed to be the perfect pawn for Cicero’s scheme. Cicero believed he could use Octavian’s connection to Caesar to rally support against Antony, while still controlling the young man. Cicero famously said of Octavian, “He is to be praised, honored, and then discarded.” In Cicero’s mind, Octavian was a temporary tool—a means to rid Rome of Antony.
Cicero’S Miscalculation: Underestimating Octavian
What Cicero failed to realize was that Octavian, despite his youth and inexperience, was far more ambitious and politically savvy than anyone expected. Cicero believed he could manipulate Octavian and mold him into a champion of the Senate. But Octavian had no intention of being a pawn in anyone’s game.
- Octavian’s Ambitions: From the moment he arrived in Rome, Octavian demonstrated an uncanny ability to build alliances and secure military support. He quickly gained the loyalty of Caesar’s veteran soldiers by promising them land and wealth, positioning himself as the rightful heir to Caesar’s legacy. Octavian knew that his name carried immense weight, and he wasn’t about to let Cicero or the Senate dictate his future.
- Playing Both Sides: While Cicero believed he had found an ally in Octavian, Octavian was quietly playing both sides of the political conflict. He publicly aligned himself with Cicero and the Senate to gain legitimacy, but behind the scenes, he was working to consolidate his own power. Octavian’s ultimate goal was not to restore the Republic but to seize control of Rome for himself.
The Turning Point: The Formation Of The Second Triumvirate
Cicero’s plan to use Octavian unraveled completely in 43 BCE, when Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate—a three-man dictatorship that divided control of the Roman world among them. This alliance, forged out of political necessity, marked the end of Cicero’s dreams of restoring the Republic.
- Cicero’s Betrayal: The formation of the Triumvirate was a stunning betrayal for Cicero. Octavian, whom Cicero had championed, had now allied himself with Antony, the very man Cicero had tried to destroy. Cicero’s belief that he could control Octavian had been a fatal misjudgment. Instead of being a protector of the Senate, Octavian had joined forces with Antony to crush their mutual enemies—starting with Cicero himself.
- The Proscriptions: One of the Triumvirate’s first actions was to issue a series of proscriptions—hit lists targeting their political enemies. Cicero’s name was at the top. Octavian, once Cicero’s supposed ally, now sanctioned his execution as a political necessity. In December 43 BCE, Cicero was captured and killed by Antony’s forces, marking the end of his career and the end of the Roman Republic as he knew it.
Octavian’S Path To Power: The First Emperor Emerges
With Cicero gone and Antony subdued, Octavian was free to pursue his ultimate goal: absolute control of Rome. Over the next several years, Octavian would defeat Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, securing his place as the unchallenged ruler of Rome. In 27 BCE, Octavian was granted the title Augustus, becoming Rome’s first emperor.
- The Death of the Republic: Cicero’s efforts to save the Republic had failed spectacularly. Instead of preserving the Senate’s power, Cicero had unwittingly paved the way for Octavian to dismantle the Republic’s institutions and establish an autocracy. The Senate, once the heart of Roman political life, was reduced to a ceremonial body, and the era of the Roman Empire had begun.
- Cicero’s Legacy: In the end, Cicero’s miscalculations were rooted in his idealism. He believed in the principles of the Republic and thought that through rhetoric and political maneuvering, he could preserve its institutions. But Cicero failed to recognize that the forces tearing the Republic apart—military power, personal ambition, and shifting alliances—were far more potent than any speech or senatorial decree.
Could Cicero Have Prevented The Rise Of Octavian?
In hindsight, it’s clear that Cicero’s belief that he could control Octavian was tragically misguided. But could he have done anything differently to prevent the rise of the empire? Some argue that the Republic was already too fractured, and that no amount of political maneuvering could have saved it. Others believe that Cicero’s failure to adapt to the changing realities of Roman politics—his refusal to acknowledge the power of the military and the ambitions of men like Octavian—sealed the Republic’s fate.
- A Republic in Decline: By the time Cicero tried to intervene, the Republic was already in its death throes. The system of checks and balances that had once governed Rome had eroded, and military power had become the dominant force in politics. Cicero’s idealism, while admirable, was out of step with the realities of the time. His belief that Octavian could be a temporary ally in the fight for the Republic ignored the larger forces at play.
- The Rise of Autocracy: Cicero’s failure to recognize Octavian’s ambitions was part of a larger trend in Roman politics—the rise of autocracy. Figures like Julius Caesar and Octavian understood that real power lay in controlling the military and appealing to the people’s desire for stability. Cicero’s faith in the Senate and the rule of law was no match for the ambitions of men who sought absolute power.
Conclusion: Cicero’S Miscalculations And The Birth Of The Empire
Cicero’s political miscalculations, particularly his underestimation of Octavian, played a pivotal role in the collapse of the Roman Republic. His belief that he could control the young heir of Caesar and use him to defeat Antony was tragically misguided. Instead, Cicero’s actions paved the way for Octavian to rise to power and become Augustus, the first emperor of Rome.
The rise of Octavian—and the fall of Cicero—serves as a powerful reminder of how personal ambition, political miscalculation, and the shifting dynamics of power can reshape history. Cicero’s legacy as a defender of the Republic is undeniable, but his missteps ultimately contributed to the very outcome he sought to prevent: the end of the Republic and the dawn of the Roman Empire.
